Reproduction is a universal biological process that allows new individuals to emerge from their parents. It is a key feature of life on earth. Reproduction means copying and resembling, which is the cornerstone of species reproduction from generation to generation. For single-cell organisms, the ability of a cell to reproduce itself represents the production of a new individual. For multicellular organisms, they produce offspring in a variety of ways.
Fig.1 The thyroid hormone axis and reproduction.1, 2
Reproduction is mainly divided into asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. Interestingly, these two modes of reproduction coexist in some organisms, such as sea anemones, slime molds, and aphids. When environmental factors are favorable, these organisms reproduce asexually to produce numerous offspring to fully exploit resources. However, when the environment changes, these organisms tend to reproduce sexually.
In this mode of reproduction, an organism replicates itself to form genetically identical offspring. Therefore, it allows the creation of identical copies of itself without other creatures. Asexual reproduction enables exponential growth in the population of organisms. Many organisms can reproduce asexually, such as bacteria, viruses, polyps, and yeast. However, the members produced in this model all have similar vulnerabilities.
Sexual reproduction relies on the interaction of gametes. Sexual reproduction produces organisms that share the genetic characteristics of both parents and therefore have unique genetic properties. Typically, organisms in this model produce fewer offspring, but the resulting offspring have a large amount of genetic variation that ensures their health and survival.
Reproduction is a dynamic and complex process, and therefore requires the participation of multiple signals.
As a crucial regulatory hub in the human body, Notch signaling plays an irreplaceable role in the development of the reproductive system. Specifically, this pathway participates in hormonal regulation within the female reproductive tract. In addition, Notch signaling is also involved in regulating ovarian and uterine function.
MAPK signaling is essential for male reproduction. MAPK has been reported to be closely linked to the regulation of testicular intercellular connections and germ cell proliferation. During spermatogenesis, MAPK signaling is involved in regulating cell apoptosis and metabolism. In addition, data have shown that MAPK signaling is also a necessary node in insect female reproduction.
Increasing evidence reveals that the mTOR pathway is emerging as a key factor in reproductive regulation. The mTOR pathway is involved in a variety of cellular processes related to reproduction. First, the mTOR pathway contributes to preventing premature aging of ovarian follicles. In addition, the pathway regulates the blood-testis barrier in male gonads. Notably, in stem cells, mTOR serves as a factor controlling pluripotency and differentiation to regulate embryonic dormancy.
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